Culture, Country & spirituality

About this topic

Culture is a broad term. It includes traditional practices, ways of understanding the world, and methods of expression such as language, celebrations and events. Country refers to an area of land or sea on which First Nations people have a traditional or spiritual association. Spirituality is a way of understanding life and connection with others. Individual Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures have specific spiritualities that are connected to Country and community.

Culture and spirituality can be expressed through many contemporary and traditional forms including language, dress, kinship, social norms, stories, music, song, dance, visual art, literature and film. Through these practices, culture can provide a sense of belonging that contributes to individual and community wellbeing.

Connection to culture, Country and spirituality and ancestors

Connection to culture, connection to Country and connection to spirituality and ancestors are 3 of the 7 domains of social and emotional wellbeing for First Nations people.

Social and emotional wellbeing is a holistic way of looking at relationships between individuals, family, kin and community in the context of land, culture, spirituality and ancestry. Cultural groups and individuals each have their own interpretation of social and emotional wellbeing (Gee et al. 2014).

Factors that support the connections to culture, Country and spirituality and ancestors include cultural education, time spent on Country, and opportunities to attend ceremonies. Factors that adversely affect these domains include services that are not culturally safe, languages being under threat, and access to Country being restricted (PM&C 2017).

Disconnection from Country can affect the connection to body, mind and emotions. Physical and mental health outcomes can be improved from being on and caring for Country (Burgess et al. 2009; PM&C 2017).

Culture

Culture is informed by history and heritage. It is also dynamic as it differs across time, geographic areas and groups of people (Paradies 2006). Often, rituals and ceremonies connect person, land and place (Dudgeon et al. 2017). Taking part in traditional customs and rites of passage can provide opportunities to learn about practices, acceptable behaviours, or familial and cultural responsibilities (Dudgeon et al. 2017). Cultural activities can also provide a sense of continuity with the past and help underpin a strong identity that contributes to wellbeing (PM&C 2017).

Country

Improvements in physical and mental health outcomes can be experienced as a result of being on and caring for Country. These outcomes include improved diet, more frequent physical activity, lower blood pressure and lowered psychological distress (Burgess et al. 2009). Connection to Country can be maintained by:

recognising an area as Country that one belongs to
having access to Country
continuing cultural responsibilities to Country (Gee et al. 2014).

Country is a holistic concept based on the belief that all things – people, land and seas – are connected (Nursey-Bray & Palmer 2018). Management of land and seas can be disrupted by human-induced and natural environmental factors (Burgess et al. 2009).

In 2020, all Australian governments and the Coalition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peak Organisations worked in partnership to develop the National Agreement on Closing the Gap- external site opens in new window (the National Agreement), built around 4 Priority Reforms. The National Agreement also identifies 19 targets across 17 socioeconomic outcome areas. Three of these targets directly relate to culture and Country, monitored annually by the Productivity Commission.

National Agreement on Closing the Gap: culture and Country-related targets

Outcome area 15: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people maintain a distinctive cultural, spiritual, physical and economic relationship with their land and waters

Target A: By 2030, a 15% increase in Australia’s land mass subject to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s legal rights or interests (from 3,908,387 square kilometres in 2020 to 4,498,431 square kilometres by 2030).
Status: As at 30 June 2023, 4,213,978 square kilometres of the land mass of Australia were subject to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s rights or interests. This is higher than the target trajectory of 4,085,400 square kilometres.
Target B: By 2030, a 15% increase in areas covered by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s legal rights or interests in the sea (from 90,252 square kilometres in 2020 to 103,790 square kilometres by 2030).
Status: As at 30 June 2023, 113,461 square kilometres of the sea country of Australia were subject to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s rights or interests. This is higher than the target trajectory of 94,313 square kilometres.

Outcome area 16: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and languages are strong, supported and flourishing

Target: By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken (from 123 languages spoken, with 14 considered strong, in 2018–19; to 124 languages spoken, with 15 considered strong, by 2030–31).
Status: Progress towards this target could not be assessed because there were no new data on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken since the baseline year of 2018-19.

Source: Closing the Gap information repository

Spirituality

Spirituality can be described as providing ‘a sense of purpose and meaning’. The mental health and emotional wellbeing of First Nations people can be influenced by their relationship with traditional beliefs and metaphysical worldviews (PM&C 2017).

In many First Nations cultures, poor connection to spirituality can adversely affect mental health. Spiritual healing practices by traditional healers may aid in the treatment of mental health conditions (Ypinazar et al. 2007). Practices can include restoring the spiritual balance of an individual through massage, coaxing and using sacred tools (Dudgeon & Walker 2015). Traditional healers (such as Ngangkaris in the Ngaanyatjarra, Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara lands) partner with psychiatrists and psychologists in contemporary practice to calm and heal a person’s spirit. Symptoms such as a weakened spirit and community disconnection may require cultural resolution and healing with culturally appropriate counselling services (Gee et al. 2014).

Key statistics

Connection to family and community, land and sea, culture and identity has been identified as integral to health and wellbeing from an Aboriginal perspective (NAHSWP 1989). Connection to Country is one of the cultural determinants of First Nations health; that is, a protective factor that supports good health and wellbeing for First Nations people (DoHAC 2021).

First Nations languages

The data presented in this section are sourced from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census of Population and Housing 2021 (census) for persons aged 15 years or over. The census is a count of population and dwellings and includes data on age, sex and other characteristics of the population (ABS 2021). See the data tables in the Download data section for notes related to these data.

In 2021, over 55,000 First Nations people reported using a First Nations language at home. Arnhem Land and Daly River region languages had the most speakers (8,382), followed by Torres Strait Island languages (6,363) and Western Desert languages (6,263) (Table CCS.1; Figure 1).

1. Data are reported for persons 15 years and over
2. The variable Main language used at home (LANP) is created from responses to the language used at home question. This question only allows for one answer and therefore the number of responses shown in the category ‘Speaker of an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language’ is not all persons who speak an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language. The non-response rate for Language used at home (LANP) for First Nations people was 6.0% in 2021. For more information about how data are collected for this variable, see Explanatory notes in the Download data tables.

The proportion of people speaking a First Nations language at home generally increased with remoteness, ranging from one in 20 (2.4%) in Major cities to more than 3 in 5 (63%) in Very remote areas (Table CCS.2; Figure 2).

1. Data are reported for persons 15 years and over
2. Remoteness Areas (RA) divide Australia into five classes of remoteness which are characterised by a measure of relative geographic access to services. Access to services is measured using the Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia Plus (ARIA+), produced by the Australian Centre for Housing Research (formerly the Hugo Centre for Population and Migration Studies) at the University of Adelaide.
3. Australia includes Includes Migratory - Offshore - Shipping and No usual address.
4. The variable Main language used at home (LANP) is created from responses to the language used at home question. This question only allows for one answer and therefore the number of responses shown in the category ‘Speaker of an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language’ is not all persons who speak an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language. The non-response rate for Language used at home (LANP) for First Nations people was 6.0% in 2021. For more information about how data are collected for this variable, see Explanatory notes in the Download data tables.

For many speakers of First Nations languages, English is not a first language. This has implications for health services because it means that in some areas there may be a language barrier between First Nations people and English-speaking health practitioners (Lin et al. 2014). Health services can improve access for First Nations people by providing interpreters in areas where English proficiency is low (Lin et al. 2014). The proportion of First Nations people who either spoke only English or (for those who used another language at home) spoke English very well decreased with increasing remoteness – from 96% in Major cities to 68% in Very remote areas (Table CCS.3). Speakers of Yolngu Matha were most likely to report speaking English not well/not at all (12%), followed by speakers of Arnhem and Daly River region languages (10%) (Table CCS.4).

Ancestry and religion

The data presented in this section are sourced from the ABS Census of Population and Housing 2021 (census) for persons aged 15 years or over. The census is a count of population and dwellings and collects data on age, sex and other characteristics of the population (ABS 2021). See the data tables in the Download data section for notes related to these data.

First Nations people in Australia have a range of different ancestries, in addition to their First Nations heritage. The 2021 census allowed people to select multiple ancestries. The most frequently reported ancestries other than Australian Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander were Australian, English, Irish, Scottish and German (Table CCS.5).

In terms of religion, the most frequently reported religious affiliation among First Nations people was No religion, followed by Catholic, Anglican and Christianity (not further defined). Australian Aboriginal Traditional Religions were the ninth most frequently reported religious affiliation among First Nations people (Table CCS.6).

Social and emotional wellbeing measures

The Indigenous Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Clearinghouse (the Clearinghouse) has used 2 social and emotional wellbeing measures – psychological distress and perceived social support – from the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey (NATSIHS) 2018–19 to identify relationships between cultural identity, access to Country, mental health conditions and SEWB. For more information about these scales, see the topic page on Social and emotional wellbeing.

The data presented in this section are sourced from the NATSIHS 2018–19 and are for persons aged 18 and over. Estimates are calculated using a sample selected from a population rather than all members of that population. See the data tables in the Download data section for notes related to these data.

Connection to culture

Evidence suggests that the loss of culture and its lasting effects on First Nations people is a risk factor for future suicidal behaviour (Dudgeon et al. 2010; Dudgeon et al. 2017). In relation to cultural identity, in 2018-19:

65% (314,166) of First Nations people identified with a tribal/ language group or clan (AIHW 2020)
97% (467,300) of First Nations people were proud of their culture and/or being Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (Table CCS.7)

Among people who identified with a tribal group, language group or clan, the proportion of people reporting Low/Moderate psychological distress was similar between categories. People who identified with a Language group had the greatest proportion of people also reporting Low/Moderate psychological distress (70%) and people who identified with a Mission had the smallest proportion (63%) (Table CCS.8)

People who were Very satisfied/satisfied with their knowledge of own culture were more likely to report Low/Moderate psychological distress (70%), compared with people who were Not very satisfied/not at satisfied (63%) (Table CCS.9)

Among people in non-remote areas, perceived social support increased slightly with level of satisfaction with knowledge of own culture, with 62% of people feeling Very satisfied or Satisfied with their knowledge of their own culture also reporting a High perceived social support (Figure 3; Table CCS.9).

People feeling Not very satisfied or Not at all satisfied were more likely to report Low perceived social support (13%). This compared with 7.6% for people reporting feeling Very satisfied/Satisfied about knowledge of own culture) (Figure 3; Table CCS.9).

1. Data reported for persons 18 years and over.
2. Percentages may not sum to 100 due to confidentialisation and rounding.
3. Total excludes Unable to determine.
4. Data were collected from a survey sample and converted into estimates for the whole population. The overall coverage of the 2018–19 NATSIHS was approximately 33% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons in Australia. The survey results were weighted to the projected Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population at 31 December 2018, which was 814,013.
5. For information about the measurement of perceived social support in the NATSIHS, see Explanatory notes in the Download data tables.

Connection to homelands and Country

While the evidence suggests there are health benefits in connections to Country and culture, for many people, living on Country is no longer an option. For those living in non-remote areas, visits may be the only realistic possibility (AIHW & NIAA 2020).

In 2018–19:

most First Nations people aged 18 and over recognised their homelands or traditional Country as an area of land with ancestral and cultural links (74% or an estimated 357,837 people)
more than a quarter (27% or 130,521) of First Nations adults reported they lived on their homelands or traditional Country
almost half (45% or 218,084) lived elsewhere but were allowed to visit
few (0.4% or 1,861) were unable to visit their homelands or traditional Country (AIHW 2020).

For people who reported that they recognised homelands or traditional Country, the proportion of people reporting Low/Moderate psychological distress (69%) were similar to those who did not recognise homelands (67%). These proportions were also similar between non-remote and remote areas (68% and 71%, respectively) (Table CCS.10).

There was more of a difference for those who reported living on homelands or Traditional Country. Around three quarters (73%) of those who lived on homelands experienced Low/moderate psychological distress, compared with two thirds (66%) of those who did not (Figure 4; Table CCS.10).

1. Data reported for persons 18 years and over.
2. Data were collected from a survey sample and converted into estimates for the whole population. The overall coverage of the 2018–19 NATSIHS was approximately 33% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons in Australia. The survey results were weighted to the projected Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population at 31 December 2018, which was 814,013.
3. For information about the measurement of psychological distress in the NATSIHS, see Explanatory notes in the Download data tables.

Key terms

Mental health is a key component of health and wellbeing. It refers to our collective and individual ability to think, feel and interact with each other. Mental health is a state of wellbeing in which every person realises their own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, and is able to contribute to their community. Mental health can affect and is affected by socioeconomic, biological and environmental factors. These can include a person’s access to services, living conditions, discrimination experienced and employment status. Mental health affects not only the individual but also their families and carers.

A mental health or behavioural condition refers to the following:

depression (including feeling depressed)
anxiety
harmful use or dependence on alcohol or drugs
behavioural or emotional problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorders in children and adolescents and adults
other mental health conditions such as organic mental problems, other mood (affective) disorders, other anxiety related problems, and psychological development (ABS 2019).

Perceived social support was determined using a set of six statements from the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), which measure a person’s perception of the social support they receive from family and friends. Respondents were asked to respond to each statement by selecting one of seven responses presented on a prompt card, ranging from ‘very strongly disagree’ to ‘very strongly agree’. ‘Don’t know’ and refusal options were available and, if selected, a score was unable to be determined. Responses to the statements were combined to produce a family score, a friends score and an overall score. The family, friends and overall scores were grouped to describe the level of perceived social support from each dimension as low (1–2.9), moderate (3–5) or high (5.1–7). The MSPSS was asked of people living in non-remote areas only (ABS 2019).

Psychological distress was determined using the Kessler 5 (K5), which is a measure of non-specific psychological distress, derived from a modified version of the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10). It is designed for use in surveys of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Respondents were asked questions about how often they had experienced negative emotional states in the previous four weeks by selecting one of five responses, ranging from ‘all of the time’ to ‘none of the time’. Responses were combined to produce an overall score between five and 25. The scores were then grouped to describe the level of psychological distress as low/moderate (5–11) or high/very high (12–25) (ABS 2019).

Remoteness: Each state and territory is divided into regions based on their relative accessibility to goods and services (such as to general practitioners, hospitals and specialist care) as measured by road distance.
These regions are based on the Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia and defined as Remoteness Areas by either the Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) (before 2011) or the Australian Statistical Geographical Standard (ASGS) (from 2011 onwards) in each Census year. The 5 Remoteness Areas are Major cities, Inner regional, Outer regional, Remote and Very remote.

Where do I go for more information?

This information was compiled from the following data sources: the ABS Census of Population and Housing and the ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey (NATSIHS) 2018–19. More information about these data sources and data quality is available in Data sources.

Data quality issues

Census of Population and Housing, 2021

There are four principal sources of error in Census data: respondent error, processing error, non-response and undercount. Quality management of the Census program aims to reduce error as much as possible and to provide a measure of the remaining error to data users to allow them to use the data in an informed way (ABS 2022). See Managing Census quality on the ABS website for more information.

Notes have been added to Clearinghouse Download tables where individual questions with substantial non-response rates (‘Not stated’ responses) have been used in Clearinghouse analysis.

National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey, 2018–19

The following factors should be considered when interpreting these estimates

Data are collected from a self-report survey, and responses may differ from information available from other sources.
Accuracy of responses may be affected by the length of time between events experienced and participation in the survey.
Some people may have provided responses they felt were expected rather than those that accurately reflect their own situation. (ABS 2019).

See ABS NATSIHS 2018–19 Methodology.

References

ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) 2019. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health survey, 2018–19. ABS cat. no. 4715.0. Canberra: ABS.

ABS 2021. Census of Population and Housing, 2021, Canberra: ABS, accessed on 25 March 2024.

ABS 2022. Managing Census quality, ABS website, Canberra: ABS, accessed 17 October 2024.

AIHW (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare) 2020. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework. Data tables: 2.14 Indigenous people with access to their traditional lands. Canberra: AIHW. Viewed 20 November 2023.

AIHW & NIAA (National Indigenous Australians Agency) 2020. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework: 2.14 Indigenous people with access to their traditional lands. Canberra: AIHW. Viewed 24 November 2023.

Burgess C, Johnston F, Berry H, McDonnell J, Yibarbuk D et al. 2009. 'Healthy country, healthy people: The relationship between Indigenous health status and caring for country'. Medical Journal of Australia 190(10):567–572.

DoHAC (Department of Health and Aged Care) 2021. Status and determinants of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health. Canberra: DoHAC. Viewed 24 November 2023.

Dudgeon P, Bray A, D’Costa B & Walker R 2017. Decolonising psychology: validating social and emotional wellbeing. Australian Psychologist 52:316–325.

Dudgeon P, Calma T and Holland C 2017. The context and causes of the suicide of Indigenous people in Australia, Journal of Indigenous Wellbeing, 2:5–15.

Dudgeon P & Walker R 2015. Decolonising Australian psychology: Discourses, strategies, and practice. Journal of Social and Political Psychology. 3(1):276–97.

Gee G, Dudgeon P, Schultz C, Hart A & Kelly K 2014. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing. In: Dudgeon P, Milroy H & Walker R (eds). Working together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practice. 2nd edn. Canberra: Australian Government, pp. 55-68.

Lin I, O’Sullivan P, Coffin J, Mak D, Toussaint S & Straker L (2014) ‘”I can sit and talk to her”: Aboriginal people, chronic low back pain and healthcare practitioner communication’, Australian Family Physician, 43(5):320–324.

NAHSWP (National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party) 1989. A national Aboriginal health strategy / prepared by the National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party. Canberra: National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party.

Nursey-Bray M & Palmer R 2018. Country, climate change adaptation and colonisation: insights from an Indigenous adaptation planning process, Australia. Heliyon 4.

Paradies YC 2006. Beyond black and white: Essentialism, hybridity and indigeneity. Journal of Sociology 42(4):355–67.

PM&C (Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet) 2017. National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ Mental Health and Social and Emotional Wellbeing. Canberra: Australian Government.

Ypinazar V, Margolis S, Haswell-Elkins M & Tsey K 2007. Indigenous Australians’ understandings regarding mental health and disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 41:467–478.

Data tables

Table number and title	Source	Reference period
Table CCS.1: Number of First Nations people using a First Nations language at home, by regional language group, 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.2: Number of First Nations people using a First Nations language at home, by remoteness 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.3: Profiency of spoken English among First Nations people, by remoteness 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.4: Profiency of spoken English among First Nations people who use an Australian Aboriginal language at home, by Regional language group, 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.5: Top 20 ancestries of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.6: Top 10 religious affiliations, by Indigenous status, 2021	AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Populations and Housing, 2021	2021
Table CCS.7: Whether proud of being Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, by sex, 2018–19	AIHW analysis of ABS NATSIHS	2018–19
Table CCS.8: Psychological distress among First Nations people, by cultural identity, 2018–19	AIHW analysis of ABS NATSIHS	2018–19
Table CCS.9: Social and emotional wellbeing among First Nations people, by satisfaction with knowledge of own culture, 2018–19	AIHW analysis of ABS NATSIHS	2018–19
Table CCS.10: Psychological distress among First Nations people by access to traditional Country, 2018–19	AIHW analysis of ABS NATSIHS	2018–19